The Rutherford-Harkins-Landau-Chadwick Key–VI. A Proposal for the Reproducible and Irrefutable Cold Fusion Reaction

The Fleischmann-Pons experiments have remained a contentious field since their inception in 1989, hampered by inconsistent reproducibility and a lack of theoretical consensus. This article presents two innovations in order to improve the reproducibility and irrefutability of these reactions. The first improvement consists in the controlled application of beta emitters in order to decrease the long induction period of cold fusion reactions and the following use of beta particle absorbers to regulate the electron replicability factor to avoid the runaway of these nuclear reactions. This idea comes from the suggestion of Edward Teller and his electron catalysis that creates in the system Pd/D unknown neutral particles (i.e. dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons). The second improvement consists in the application of elements with high neutron capture cross sections. This idea was already experimentally realized by Miles and Imam who studied the system Pd/D/Boron where the reproducibility was increased to about 90% and higher excess heat was observed. There are known some other elements with higher neutron capture cross sections that could improve the reproducibility and irrefutability of these reactions. E.g., gadolinium in the system Pd/D/Gd might significantly modify the result of these reactions. Many parallel nuclear reactions proceed in this system, and therefore, the total electron replicability factor has to be controlled during all these processes.

Introduction

Since Fleischmann and Pons [1] announced the possibility of electrochemically induced nuclear fusion in 1989, low energy nuclear reactions (LENR)—often termed cold fusion—have captivated researchers and sparked debate. Their claim of excess heat generation in deuterium-loaded palladium electrodes promised a revolutionary energy source, yet the field has struggled to achieve scientific legitimacy due to inconsistent outcomes and the absence of a coherent theoretical model. Despite early setbacks [2], [3], a persistent community has documented anomalies [4]–[17]—excess heat, helium-4 production, transmutations and isotopic shifts, tritium emissions—suggesting a nuclear process distinct from high-temperature fusion. However, the inability to reproducibly replicate these effects across laboratories, coupled with skepticism over nuclear signatures insufficient to match observed energy outputs, has relegated LENR to the fringes of mainstream science.

This article introduces a novel model for LENR to surmount these challenges, offering both high reproducibility and compelling evidence of nuclear processes. Edward Teller, the scholar with his deep knowledge of hydrogen isotopes, acknowledged cold fusion [18] as “a very unclear and low probability road into a thoroughly new area.” Teller proposed the electron catalysis as a process creating un-known neutral particles that could penetrate through the Coulomb barrier. The second inspiration came from studies of Miles and Imam [19]–[22] who added to the Pd/D system boron nuclei. This Pd/D/B system increased the reproducibility to about 90% and increased excess heat.

We present a novel model with the controlled beta emitters to start up the Pd/D system and with electron absorbers to manipulate with the electron replicability factor during the whole process in order to prevent the supercriticality of that system. The inserted nuclei (e.g., gadolinium) with a high neutron capture cross section should increase reproducibility and irrefutability while absorbing the formed dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons (Fig. 1). There should be observed many transmutations and isotopic shifts both in the palladium and gadolinium nuclei.

Fig. 1. Proposed structures for neutron, dineutron, trineutron, and tetraneutron. The magenta color depicts the neutron structure. Polyneutrons can overcome the Coulomb barrier.

Electron Controlled Nuclear Chemistry

There are many chemical reactions (at the nanometer scale), where the role of electrons is not only in providing the necessary energy to overcome the barrier for a reaction, but also in creating a pathway which may not have been possible otherwise, e.g., [23]. In October 1989 Teller [18] proposed the concept of the electron catalysis in order to explain cold fusion effects occurring at the femtometer scale. In his model some un-known neutral nuclei could be formed with their ability to penetrate through the Coulomb barrier. There might exist nuclear processes where electron catalysts are not consumed during these nuclear reactions, they are recycled during these reactions and only a small number of catalytic electrons are needed. We can introduce the electron multiplication factor k that describes these reactions:

(1) $$\begin{array}{r}k=\frac{\text{catalytic}\text{electrons}\text{out}}{\text{catalytic}\text{electrons}\text{in}}\end{array}$$

Table I summarizes three situations that were observed during the Fleischmann-Pons experiments.

Table I. The Electron Multiplication Factor in the Fleischmann-Pons Experiment

Electron multiplication factor k in the Fleischmann-Pons experiment	References
k < 1 poisonous electron catalysis	[2], [3]
1 < k < critical value—active electron catalysis	[4]–[17]
k > critical value (“a substantial portion of the cathode fused—melting point 1544°C, part of it vaporized, and the cell and contents, and part of the fume cupboard housing the experiment were destroyed”)	[1]

Stávek analyzed the historical papers of founding fathers of nuclear physics [24]–[26] and formulated the Rutherford-Harkins-Landau-Chadwick Key [27]–[31] based on inspirative papers of Rutherford [32], Harkins [33]–[35], Landau [36]–[38], and Chadwick [39].

In this century many nuclear physicists have been studying the properties of dineutron, trineutron and tetraneutron, e.g., [40]–[57]. At this moment the structures of those neutral nuclei are not known. Based on the Rutherford-Harkins-Landau-Chadwick Key, Stávek proposed the polyneutron structures in [27]:

Pure Beta Emitters and Nuclei with High Neutron Capture Cross Sections

The Pd/D system has to be activated for several days or even weeks before excess heat can be observed. We propose to activate this Pd/D system using some pure beta emitters and thus to control the length of the induction period. Some convenient pure beta emitters with electron energy above 0.782 MeV are given in Table II.

Table II. Some Pure Beta Emitters [58]

Isotope	Half-life	Maximal energy [keV]	Average energy [keV]	Daughter isotope
66Cu29	5.120 min	2,640	1,111	66Zn30
145Pr59	5.984 hour	1,805	683	145Nd60
90Y39	64.05 hour	2,281.4	933.7	90Zr40
32P15	14.269 day	1,710.3	694.9	32S16
89Sr38	50.563 day	1,492	583.3	89Y39
91Y39	58.51 day	1,545.6	604.9	91Zr40
123Sn50	129.2 day	1,403	525.5	123Sb51

Miley et al. [59] analyzed in details properties of palladium nuclei in order to bring a better view into the processes occurring in the Pd/D system. They found that one important property of palladium nuclei is their neutron capture cross section. The natural abundances of the Pd isotopes and their cross sections for the neutron capture are listed in Table III.

Table III. The Natural Abundances and Cross Sections for the Neutron Capture for Pd Isotopes [59]

Isotope	102Pd	104Pd	105Pd	106Pd	108Pd	110Pd
Atomic %	1.0	11.0	22.2	27.3	26.7	11.8
Barns metastable	5.0	?	10.0	0.013	0.20	0.02
Barns stable-state	?	10.0	90.0	0.28	12.00	0.21

Data given in Table III illustrate that the neutron capture is favored in Pd-105. Rolison and O’Grady analyzed the Pd cathodes used in the experiment of Fleischmann, Pons and Hawkins and found isotopic shifts of palladium nuclei [60]. They reported a diminution of palladium-105 and an enrichment of palladium-106 and of palladium-108.

In the first step, the electron catalysts create dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons in the Pd/D system. In the second step these polyneutrons have to be absorbed by some convenient nuclei with high neutron capture cross sections. After these absorption reactions several transmutations and isotopic shifts occur and excess heat can be observed. This idea was already experimentally studied by Miles and Imam in their Pd/D/B system [19]–[22]. Table IV summarizes some nuclei with their neutron capture cross section with thermal neutrons.

Table IV. Some Nuclei with High Neutron Capture Cross Sections [61]

Interaction	Energy Tn	Cross-section [barns]	Q-value [MeV]	Products
3He(n,p)	Thermal	5,330	0.764	Proton, triton
10B(n,α)	Thermal	3,840	2.792	Alpha, 7Li
6Li(n,α)	Thermal	940	4.78	Alpha, triton
113Cd(n,γ)	Thermal	20,600	9.04	Photons, electrons
155Gd(n,γ)	Thermal	60,900	8.536	Photons, electrons
157Gd(n,γ)	Thermal	254,000	7.937	Photons, electrons
174Hf(n,γ)	Thermal	561	6.714	Photons, electrons
177Hf(n,γ)	Thermal	373	7.626	Photons, electrons

Table IV documents that gadolinium has the highest neutron capture cross section among the stable isotopes. It could be interesting to employ these nuclei in the Pd/D/Gd system. Table V summarizes neutron capture cross sections for isotopes of gadolinium.

Table V. Neutron Capture Cross Sections of Isotopes of Gadolinium [62]

Isotope	Abundance	Thermal capture [barns]	Contribution to elemental [barns]	Percent
Gd152	0.200	1050	2.10	0.00430
Gd154	2.18	85	1.85	0.00379
Gd155	14.80	60,700	8,980	18.4
Gd156	20.47	1.71	0.350	0.000717
Gd157	15.65	254,000	39,800	81.6
Gd158	24.84	2.01	0.499	0.00102
Gd160	21.86	0.765	0.167	0.000342
Gd			48,800	100

Transmutations and Isotopic shifts of Palladium-105 and Excess Heat in these Reactions

The isotope palladium-105 favors the capture of neutrons and polyneutrons. In Table VI we predict events of Pd-105 with dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons in the Pd-105/D system.

Table VI. Palladium-105 and its Reactions with Dineutron, Trineutron and Tetraneutron

$\text{Dineutron}\text{decay}$

${\phantom{0}}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_0^{2}n\to {}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_1^{2}H\uparrow +{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +2.50MeV$

$\text{Deuteron}\text{capture}$

${}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_0^{2}n\to {}_{47}^{107}Ag+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +15.62MeV$

$\text{Trieutron}\text{decay}$

${}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_0^{3}n\to {}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_1^{3}H\uparrow +{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +8.75MeV$

$\text{Trineutron}\text{capture}$

${}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_0^{3}n\to {}_{46}^{108}Pd+25.33MeV$

$\text{Tetraneutron}\text{decay}$

${}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_0^{4}n\to {}_{46}^{105}Pd+2{}_1^{2}H\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +5.00MeV$

$\text{Helium}-4\text{formation}\text{and}\text{the}\text{fissile}\text{Pd}-105$

${}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_0^{4}n\to {\left[{}_{46}^{105}Pd\right]}^{\ast }+{}_2^{4}He\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +28.83MeV$

$\text{Neutron}\text{capture}$

${}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_0^{4}n\to {}_{46}^{106}Pd+{}_2^{3}He\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +17.82MeV$

$\text{Proton}\text{capture}$

${}_{46}^{105}Pd+{}_0^{4}n\to {\left({}_{47}^{106}Ag\right)}^{\ast }+{}_1^{3}H\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +14.84MeV$

$\text{Electron}\text{capture}\left(\text{EC}\right)\text{or}\text{beta}\text{decay}$

$EC+{}_{46}^{106}Pd\leftarrow {\left({}_{47}^{106}Ag\right)}^{\ast }\to {}_{48}^{106}Cd+{}_{-1}^{0}e$

$\text{Electron}\text{multiplication}\text{factor}$

$k=10/12(‘‘\text{dead}\text{catalysis''})k=12/12(‘‘\text{active}\text{catalysis''})$

During the formation of helium-4, the nucleus Pd-105 absorbs energy from this reaction and might become fissile as it is predicted in Table VII. Some additional electrons can be formed during the fission reactions of palladium-105 and following beta decays and thus promote the “active electron catalysis” of the Pd/D system. These nuclear reactions have been studied by the LENR community, e.g., [63].

Table VII. The Fissile Palladium-105 and Possible Fissions of the Palladium-105

${\left[{}_{46}^{105}Pd\right]}^{\ast }\to {}_{26}^{57}Fe+{\left({}_{20}^{48}Ca\right)}^{\ast }+15.98MeV$

${\left({}_{20}^{48}Ca\right)}^{\ast }\to {}_{22}^{48}Ti+2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +3.25MeV$

${\left[{}_{46}^{105}Pd\right]}^{\ast }\to {}_{26}^{56}Fe+{\left({}_{20}^{49}Ca\right)}^{\ast }+13.48MeV$

${\left({}_{20}^{49}Ca\right)}^{\ast }\to {}_{21}^{49}Sc+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow \to {}_{22}^{49}Ti+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +6.24MeV$

${\left[{}_{46}^{105}Pd\right]}^{\ast }\to {}_{28}^{62}Ni+{\left({}_{18}^{43}Ar\right)}^{\ast }+10.34MeV$

${\left({}_{18}^{43}Ar\right)}^{\ast }\to {}_{19}^{43}K+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow \to {}_{20}^{43}Ca+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +5.38MeV$

${\left[{}_{46}^{105}Pd\right]}^{\ast }\to {}_{24}^{52}Cr+{\left({}_{22}^{53}Ti\right)}^{\ast }+13.89MeV$

${\left({}_{22}^{53}Ti\right)}^{\ast }\to {}_{23}^{53}V+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow \to {}_{24}^{53}Cr+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +7.38MeV$

$\text{Correction}\text{of}\text{the}\text{electron}\text{multiplication}\text{factor}$

$k=10+2/12(‘‘\text{active}\text{catalysis''})k=12+2/12(‘‘\text{active}\text{catalysis''})$

L.C. Case discovered the elegant system consisting of Pd/D₂/C-catalyst in Prague in 1997, [64], [65]. McKubre et al. [66] obtained interesting experimental data from this sample of charcoal on which a small amount of Pd was deposited—Table VIII. The sample was heated in D₂ gas near 240°C. We assume that this system might be the standard system for the Fleischmann-Pons experiment because there is the dominant nuclear reaction of tetraneutron on the stable ring of carbon-12. Carbon-12 in this system is the stable isotope without transmutations and isotope shifts. McKubre et al. [66] experimental data for excess heat could be explained as the dominant effect of the tetraneutron channels in this experiment.

Table VIII. The Energetic Yield from Three Channels of Polyneutron Reactions in the Palladium/D lattice

Dineutron channel

$2{}_0^{2}n\to 2{}_1^{2}H+2{}_{-1}^{0}e+5.0MeV$

Trineutron channel

$2{}_0^{3}n\to 2{}_1^{3}H+2{}_{-1}^{0}e+17.6MeV$

${}_1^{3}H+{}_1^{3}H\to {}_2^{4}He+{}_0^{2}n+11.3MeV$

${}_0^{2}n\to {}_1^{2}H+{}_{-1}^{0}e+2.5MeVTotal31.4MeV/{}_2^{4}He$

Tetraneutron channel

${}_0^{4}n\to {}_2^{4}He+2{}_{-1}^{0}e+28.8MeV$ ${}_0^{4}n\to 2{}_1^{2}H+2{}_{-1}^{0}e+5.0MeVTotal33.8MeV/{}_2^{4}He$

McKubre experimental data [ 66 ]

Gradient analysis: (31 ± 13) MeV/ 4 He

Differential analysis: (32 ± 13) MeV/ 4 He

Hot fusion channel

${}_1^{2}H+{}_1^{2}H\to {}_2^{4}He+\gamma +23.9MeV$

Transmutations and Isotopic shifts of Boron-10 and Excess Heat in these Reactions

Miles and Imam [19]–[22] performed the Fleischmann-Pons experiment in the Pd/D/B system with the cathode composed from the solid solution of palladium and boron (boron content was about 0.5%). They observed the reproducibility of these reactions at a level of about 90% with a higher yield of excess heat.

We expect that nuclei of boron-10 capture dineutron, trineutron and tetraneutron and the nuclear reactions summarized in Table IX might occur. The dominant tetraneutron channel leads to the predicted excess heat 64.01 MeV/⁴He. Miles [19] determined experimentally excess heat (62.3 ± 13) MeV/⁴He.

Table IX. Boron-10 and its Reactions with Dineutron, Trineutron and Tetraneutron

$\text{Dineutron}\text{decay}$
${}_5^{10}B+{}_0^{2}n\to {}_5^{10}B+{}_1^{2}H\uparrow +{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +2.50MeV$
$\text{Deuteron}\text{capture}$
${}_5^{10}B+{}_0^{2}n\to {}_6^{12}C+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +27.68MeV$
$\text{Trieutron}\text{decay}$
${}_5^{10}B+{}_0^{3}n\to {}_5^{10}B+{}_1^{3}H\uparrow +{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +8.75MeV$
$\text{Triton}\text{capture}$
${}_5^{10}B+{}_0^{3}n\to {}_6^{13}C+{}_{-1}^{0}e+32.63MeV$
$\text{Tetraneutron}\text{decay}$
${}_5^{10}B+{}_0^{4}n\to {}_5^{10}B+2{}_1^{2}H\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +5.00MeV$
$\text{Helium}-4\text{formation}$
${}_5^{10}B+{}_0^{4}n\to {}_5^{10}B+{}_2^{4}He\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +28.83MeV$
$\text{Deuteron}\text{capture}$
${}_5^{10}B+{}_0^{4}n\to {}_6^{12}C+{}_1^{2}H\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +30.18MeV$
Dominant tetraneutron channel
Q = 5.00 + 28.83 + 30.18 = 64.01 MeV/ 4 He
Miles – Imam experiment with the Pd/D/B System [ 19 ]
Q = (62.3 ± 13) MeV/4He [=1.0x1011 (4He)/(Ws)]
Reproducibility ≈ 90%, higher excess heat
$\text{Electron}\text{multiplication}\text{factor}$
$k=10/10(‘‘\text{active}\text{catalysis''})$

Transmutations and Isotopic shifts of Gadolinium-157 and Excess Heat in these Reactions

It is known from the literature that gadolinium-157 has the highest neutron capture cross section among the stable isotopes. Therefore, we propose to study the Fleischmann-Pons experiment with a cathode made from the solid solution of palladium-gadolinium. We predict that we should achieve higher reproducibility than in the Pd/D/B system. Table X surveys expected nuclear reactions of the isotope gadolinium-157 with dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons. During the formation of helium-4, the energy 28.83 MeV is formed, and this energy could activate gadolinium-157. This activated nuclei Gd-157 could become fissile and decompose into different daughter products. One such predicted fissile reaction with following beta decays of unstable nuclei is shown in Table XI. During beta decay several extra electron catalysts are formed, and the electron replicability factor k has to be controlled during these reactions in order to avoid the supercritical situation.

Table X. Gadolinium-157 and its Predicted Reactions with Dineutron, Trineutron and Tetraneutron

$\text{Dineutron}\text{decay}$

${}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_0^{2}n\to {}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_1^{2}H\uparrow +{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +2.50MeV$

$\text{Deuteron}\text{capture}$

${}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_0^{2}n\to {}_{65}^{159}Tb+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +14.34MeV$

$\text{Trieutron}\text{decay}$

${}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_0^{3}n\to {}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_1^{3}H\uparrow +{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +8.75MeV$

$\text{Trineutron}\text{capture}$

${}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_0^{3}n\to {}_{64}^{160}Gd+21.33MeV$

$\text{Tetraneutron}\text{decay}$

${}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_0^{4}n\to {}_{64}^{157}Gd+2{}_1^{2}H\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +5.00MeV$

$\text{Helium}-4\text{formation and fissile Gd}-157$

${}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_0^{4}n\to {\left[{}_{64}^{157}Gd\right]}^{\ast }+{}_2^{4}He\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +28.83MeV$

$\text{Proton}\text{capture}$

${}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_0^{4}n\to {}_{65}^{158}Tb+{}_1^{3}H\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +14.96MeV$

$\text{Neutron}\text{capture}$

${}_{64}^{157}Gd+{}_0^{4}n\to {}_{64}^{158}Gd+{}_2^{3}He\uparrow +2{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow +16.20MeV$

Dominant tetraneutron channel

Q = 5.00 + 28.83 + 14.96 + 16.20 = 64.79 MeV/ 4 He

$\text{Electron}\text{multiplication}\text{factor}$

$k=11/12(‘‘\text{dead}\text{catalysis''})$

Table XI. The Fissile Gadolinium-157 and One Predicted Possible Fission of the Gadolinium-157

${\left[{}_{64}^{157}Gd\right]}^{\ast }\to {}_{28}^{62}Ni+{\left({}_{36}^{95}Kr\right)}^{\ast }$

${\left({}_{36}^{95}Kr\right)}^{\ast }\to {\left({}_{37}^{95}Rb\right)}^{\ast }+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow (t_{1/2}=114ms)$

${\left({}_{37}^{95}Rb\right)}^{\ast }\to {\left({}_{38}^{95}Sr\right)}^{\ast }+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow (t_{1/2}=377ms)$

${\left({}_{38}^{95}Sr\right)}^{\ast }\to {\left({}_{39}^{95}Y\right)}^{\ast }+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow (t_{1/2}=23.90s)$

${\left({}_{39}^{95}Y\right)}^{\ast }\to {\left({}_{40}^{95}Zr\right)}^{\ast }+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow (t_{1/2}=10.3min\left(\right))$

${\left({}_{40}^{95}Zr\right)}^{\ast }\to {\left({}_{41}^{95}Nb\right)}^{\ast }+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow (t_{1/2}=64.032day)$

${\left({}_{41}^{95}Nb\right)}^{\ast }\to {}_{42}^{95}Mo\left(stable\right)+{}_{-1}^{0}e\uparrow (t_{1/2}=34.991day)$

$\text{Correction}\text{of}\text{the}\text{electron}\text{multiplication}\text{factor}$

$k=11+6/12(‘‘\text{active}\text{catalysis''})$

Controlled Cold Fusion Experiment

The principle of the controlled cold fusion experiment is shown in Fig. 2 During the induction period a convenient beta emitter emits beta electrons towards the Pd/D/Gd system under formation of dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons. Once the set of nuclear reactions proceeds, the electron catalysts have been recycled, and the beta electron concentration has to be controlled using a beta absorber. This manipulation of the Pd/D/Gd system avoids the possible supercritical state with some undesired situations, e.g., [67], [68].

Fig. 2. Schema of the controlled cold fusion reaction with the induction period and the controlled electron replicability factor.

Conclusion

1. Rules describing nucleus structures based on the compound neutron (the compound of proton and electron) and the existence of dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons were postulated.
2. The electron multiplication factor as the parameter describing the electron catalytical action of the Pd/D system was introduced.
3. Nuclear reactions of the isotope palladium-105 with dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons were predicted.
4. Nuclear reactions of the isotope boron-10 with dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons were predicted.
5. Nuclear reactions of the isotope gadolinium-157 with dineutrons, trineutrons and tetraneutrons were predicted.
6. The variability of excess heat per helium-4 was explained via several parallel nuclear reactions in the Pd/D system.
7. These new channels predict the energetic yield of those fusion reactions that could be experimentally tested and differ from the energetic yield of the DD hot fusion.
8. McKubre quote [69] in 2016: “It is time to stop hiding information and start helping each other.”
9. Nature prepared for us some new safe routes of the helium-4 fusion reactions without dangerous byproducts.