The Rutherford-Harkins-Landau-Chadwick Key. V. Transmutations and Isotopic Shifts in the Fleischmann-Pons Experiment

The Fleischmann-Pons experiment, despite its controversial reception, remains a pivotal point of inquiry in the field of low-energy nuclear reactions (LENR). Inspired by Julian Schwinger´s assertion that “the circumstances of cold fusion are not those of hot fusion” and Edward Teller´s acknowledgement of cold fusion as “a very unclear and low probability road into a thoroughly new area,” this paper presents a novel model that seeks to reinterpret the complex dynamics underlying the Fleischmann-Pons observations. This study explores Edward Teller´s electron catalysis in order to penetrate through the Coulomb barrier as the neutral projectiles: dineutron and tetraneutron. The model also addresses the observed variability in excess heat production and isotopic shifts in palladium. This paper aims to open a new interpretative pathway for understanding the Fleischmann-Pons experiment. The findings not only contribute to the ongoing discourse in LENR but also suggest potential experimental setups for validating the model, ultimately advancing the quest for sustainable, clean energy solutions.

Introduction

Since its announcement in 1989, the Fleischmann-Pons experiment has remained one of the most controversial and debated topics in modern physics, e.g., [1]–[10]. The claim of nuclear fusion at room temperature within a palladium-deuterium electrochemical system challenged well-established principles of nuclear physics, leading to both intense scrutiny and widespread skepticism. Despite initial failures to reproduce the reported excess heat consistently, subsequent investigations have produced intriguing, albeit variable, results that continue to fuel interest in the field of low-energy nuclear reactions (LENR).

Julius Schwinger, a Nobel laureate in quantum electrodynamics, emphasized the unique conditions of cold fusion [11], asserting that “the circumstances of cold fusion are not those of hot fusion.” This insight invites a reconsideration of the mechanism at play, suggesting that nuclear reactions in condensed matter environments may follow pathways distinct from those in high-temperature plasma. Similarly, Edward Teller, the scholar with his deep knowledge of hydrogen isotopes, acknowledged cold fusion [12] as “a very unclear and low probability road into a thoroughly new area.” While expressing skepticism, Teller´s proposal of yet-not-known electron catalysis underscores the potential for cold fusion to reveal novel physical phenomena.

Building on these perspectives, this paper proposes a new model for interpreting the Fleischmann-Pons experiment. The proposed neutral projectiles–dineutron and tetraneutron–can overcome the Coulomb barrier and react with palladium nuclei via numerous nuclear reactions leading to transmutations and isotopic shifts of palladium nuclei.

Edward Teller´s Electron Catalysis

During one important meeting on the possibility of the cold fusion reactions, Edward Teller proposed [12] the concept of the electron catalysis in October 1989. There might exist a process where electron catalysts are not consumed in the reaction and are recycled during these reactions and only small number of catalytic electrons are needed. We can introduce the electron multiplication factor k that describes these reactions:

(1) $$\begin{array}{r}\text{k}=\frac{\text{catalytic}\text{electrons}\text{out}}{\text{catalytic}\text{electrons}\text{in}}\end{array}$$

Table I summarizes three situations that were observed during the Fleischmann-Pons experiments.

Table I. The Electron Multiplication Factor in the Fleischmann-Pons Experiment

Electron multiplication factor k in the Fleischmann-Pons experiment	Reference
k < 1 poisonous electron catalysis	[13], [14]
1 < k < critical value-active electron catalysis	[15], [16]
k > critical value (“a substantial portion of the cathode fused–melting point 1544 °C, part of it vaporized, and the cell and contents, and part of the fume cupboard housing the experiment were destroyed”)	[1]

We propose to evaluate the Fleischmann-Pons experiment based on the achieved value of the electron multiplication factor k in those reactions. E.g., Fleischmann et al. [1] overcame the critical value k when their palladium cathode had cube size 1 × 1 × 1 cm (12 grams). In this case the concentration of electron catalysts exceeded the safe concentration and the following chain reaction caused the damage in their laboratory.

Stávek analyzed the historical papers of founding fathers of nuclear physics [17]–[20] and formulated the Rutherford-Harkins-Landau-Chadwick Key [12]–[14] based on inspirative papers of Rutherford [21], Harkins and Wilson [22]–[27], Landau [28]–[30], and Chadwick [31].

There were published many papers in the field of the Fleischmann-Pons experiment dealing with the role of neutrons in these reactions, e.g., [3], [15], [16].

In the recent time many nuclear physicists have been studying the properties of dineutron and tetraneutron, e.g., [32]–[47]. At this moment the structures of those neutral nuclei are not known. Based on the Rutherford-Harkins-Landau-Chadwick Key we propose the polyneutrons structures as given in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Proposed formation of dineutrons, and tetraneutron as subunits acting in the Fleischmann-Pons experiments. The magenta color depicts the neutron structure, the red color–proton, the blue color–electron. Both dineutron and tetraneutron can overcome the Coulomb barrier.

There is one possibility how to test the reality of this electron catalysis. We can add to the Pd/D system a convenient beta-emitter that can release beta particles with the needed energy and thus should modify the electron multiplication factor k.

It is known that in the case of cold fusion, electrons play several different roles. The recent study of Gordon and Whitehouse bring several important data on the active role of electrons in the Fleischmann-Pons experiment [48].

Neutron Capture is Favored in Palladium-105

Miley et al. [49] analyzed in details properties of palladium nuclei in order to bring a better view into the processes occurring in the Pd/D system. The natural abundances of the Pd isotopes and their cross sections for the neutron capture are listed in Table II.

Table II. The Natural Abundances and Cross Sections for the Neutron Capture for Pd Isotopes [49]

Isotope	102Pd	104Pd	105Pd	106Pd	108Pd	110Pd
Atomic %	1.0	11.0	22.2	27.3	26.7	11.8
Barns metastable	5.0	?	10.0	0.013	0.20	0.02
Barns stable-state	?	10.0	90.0	0.28	12.00	0.21

Data given in Table II illustrate that the neutron capture is favored in Pd-105.

Rolison and O´Grady reproduced the “provocative” experiment of Fleischmann, Pons and Hawkins and analyzed the isotopic shifts of palladium nuclei [50]. They reported a diminution of palladium-105 and an enrichment of palladium-106.

Transmutations and Isotopic Shifts of Palladium-105

Based on the study of Miley et al. [49] we know that the isotope palladium-105 favors the capture of neutrons. Therefore, we will summarize events of Pd-105 with dineutrons and tetraneutrons in the Pd-105/D system in Table III.

Table III. Palladium-105 and its Reactions with Dineutron and Tetraneutron

$\begin{array}{l}\text{Dineutron}\text{decay}\\ \stackrel{105}{46}Pd+\stackrel{2}{0}n\to \stackrel{105}{46}Pd+\stackrel{2}{1}H\uparrow +\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +2.50MeV\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}\text{Deuteron}\text{capture}\\ \stackrel{105}{46}Pd+\stackrel{2}{0}n\to \stackrel{107}{47}Ag+\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +15.62MeV\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}\text{Tetraneutron}\text{decay}\\ \stackrel{105}{46}Pd+\stackrel{4}{0}n\to \stackrel{105}{46}Pd+2\stackrel{2}{1}H\uparrow +2\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +5.00MeV\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}\text{Helium}-4\text{formation}\text{and}\text{the}\text{fissile}\text{Pd}-105\\ \stackrel{105}{46}Pd+\stackrel{4}{0}n\to {\left[\stackrel{105}{46}Pd\right]}^{\ast }+\stackrel{4}{2}He\uparrow +2\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +28.83MeV\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}\text{Neutron}\text{capture}\\ \stackrel{105}{46}Pd+\stackrel{4}{0}n\to \stackrel{106}{46}Pd+\stackrel{3}{2}He\uparrow +2\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +17.82MeV\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}\text{Proton}\text{capture}\\ \stackrel{105}{46}Pd+\stackrel{4}{0}n\to {\left(\stackrel{106}{47}Ag\right)}^{\ast }+\stackrel{3}{1}H\uparrow +2\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +14.84MeV\\ \text{Electron}\text{capture}\left(\text{EC}\right)\text{or}\text{beta}\text{decay}\\ EC+\stackrel{106}{46}Pd\leftarrow {\left(\stackrel{106}{47}Ag\right)}^{\ast }\to \stackrel{106}{48}Cd+\stackrel{0}{-1}e\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}\text{Electron}\text{multiplication}\text{factor}\\ k=9/10("\text{dead}\text{catalysis}")k=11/10("\text{active}\text{catalysis}")\end{array}$

Table III surveys several parallel nuclear reactions of the Pd-105 with dineutrons and tetraneutrons. The total excess heat of these reactions will depend on the reaction conditions of individual experimental arrangements. Moreover, during the formation of helium-4, the nucleus Pd-105 get a strong energetic impulse and might become fissile as it is proposed in Table IV. The total value of the electron multiplication factor k might be less than 1 (“dead catalysis”) or bigger than 1 (“active catalysis”). Some additional electrons can be added during the fission reactions of palladium-105 and following beta decays, and thus promote the “active electron catalysis” of the Pd/D system.

Table IV. The Fissile Palladium-105 and Possible Fissions of the Palladium-105

$\begin{array}{l}{\left[\stackrel{105}{46}Pd\right]}^{\ast }\to \stackrel{57}{26}Fe+{\left(\stackrel{48}{20}Ca\right)}^{\ast }+15.98MeV\\ {\left(\stackrel{48}{20}Ca\right)}^{\ast }\to \stackrel{48}{22}Ti+2\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +3.25MeV\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}{\left[\stackrel{105}{46}Pd\right]}^{\ast }\to \stackrel{56}{26}Fe+{\left(\stackrel{49}{20}Ca\right)}^{\ast }+13.48MeV\\ {\left(\stackrel{49}{20}Ca\right)}^{\ast }\to \stackrel{49}{21}Sc+\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow \to \stackrel{49}{22}Ti+\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +6.24MeV\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}{\left[\stackrel{105}{46}Pd\right]}^{\ast }\to \stackrel{62}{28}Ni+{\left(\stackrel{43}{18}Ar\right)}^{\ast }+10.34MeV\\ {\left(\stackrel{43}{18}Ar\right)}^{\ast }\to \stackrel{43}{19}K+\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow \to \stackrel{43}{20}Ca+\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +5.38MeV\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}{\left[\stackrel{105}{46}Pd\right]}^{\ast }\to \stackrel{52}{24}Cr+{\left(\stackrel{53}{22}Ti\right)}^{\ast }+13.89MeV\\ {\left(\stackrel{53}{22}Ti\right)}^{\ast }\to \stackrel{53}{23}V+\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow \to \stackrel{53}{24}Cr+\stackrel{0}{-1}e\uparrow +7.38MeV\end{array}$
$\begin{array}{l}\text{Correction}\text{of}\text{the}\text{electron}\text{multiplication}\text{factor}\\ k=(9+2)/10("\text{active}\text{catalysis}")k=(11+2)/10("\text{active}\text{catalysis}")\end{array}$

Excess Heat Per Helium-4

Many researchers published values of excess heat per formed helium-4 with a significant variability. This variability in data leads to the critical estimation of these nuclear reactions. Storms in his valuable review [16] collected 16 reliable measurements by four independent studies of excess heat produced by electrochemical cells containing D₂O. Fig. 2 shows this variability in experimental data.

Fig. 2. Histogram of 16 measurements by four independent studies showing excess heat per helium-4 produced by electrochemical cells containing D₂O, reviewed by Storms [16].

Tables III and IV documents that several parallel nuclear reactions with their energetic contributions lead to this variability in experimental data. Table V describes contributions of individual reaction channels to the final excess heat. Therefore, in order to make a deeper analysis of total excess heat it is necessary to take into account all possible nuclear reactions occurring in the Pd/D system.

Table V. The Energetic Yield from Three Channels of the d-d Fusion Reactions in the Palladium/D Lattice

Dineutron channel
$2\stackrel{2}{0}n\to 2\stackrel{2}{1}H+2\stackrel{0}{-1}e+5.0MeV$
Trineutron channel
$\begin{array}{l}2\stackrel{3}{0}n\to 2\stackrel{3}{1}H+2\stackrel{0}{-1}e+17.6MeV\\ \stackrel{3}{1}H+\stackrel{3}{1}H\to \stackrel{4}{2}He+\stackrel{2}{0}n+11.3MeV\\ \stackrel{2}{0}n\to \stackrel{2}{1}H+\stackrel{0}{-1}e+2.5MeVTotal31.4MeV/\stackrel{4}{2}He\end{array}$
Tetraneutron channel
$\begin{array}{l}\stackrel{4}{0}n\to \stackrel{4}{2}He+2\stackrel{0}{-1}e+28.8MeV\\ \stackrel{4}{0}n\to 2\stackrel{2}{1}H+2\stackrel{0}{-1}e+5.0MeVTotal33.8MeV/\stackrel{4}{2}He\end{array}$
McKubre experimental data [ 51 ]
Gradient analysis: (31 ± 13) MeV/ 4 He
Differential analysis: (32 ± 13) MeV/ 4 He
Hot fusion channel
$\stackrel{2}{1}H+\stackrel{2}{1}H\to \stackrel{4}{2}He+\gamma +23.9MeV$

The Epitaxial Growth of Helium-4 on the Ring of Carbon-12

L.C. Case discovered the elegant system consisting of Pd/D₂/C-catalyst in Prague in 1997, [52], [53]. McKubre et al. [51] obtained interesting experimental data from this sample of charcoal on which a small amount of Pd was deposited–Table V. The sample was heated in D₂ gas near 243 °C. We assume that this system might be the standard system for the Fleischmann-Pons experiment because there is the dominant nuclear reaction of tetraneutron on the stable ring of carbon-12. Carbon-12 in this system is the stable isotope without transmutations and isotope shifts. The proposed reaction is given by Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. The epitaxial growth of helium-4 on the ring of the carbon-12.

This epitaxial growth of helium-4 on the ring of carbon-12 might be the laboratory version of the famous Bethe-von Weizsäcker CNO reaction where helium-4 is formed at very high temperatures in stars on the carbon-12 catalyst [18], [54], [55].

Conclusion

This contribution was inspired by the works of the founders of nuclear physics–Rutherford, Harkins, Landau, and Chadwick-who published their nucleus models before the bifurcation point defined by the neutron and neutrino models of Pauli and Fermi [56] in 1934. Two impulses came from two leading scientists in the field of hydrogen isotopes: Julian Schwinger (promotion of cold fusion research in 1989) and Edward Teller (electron catalysis in 1989).

1. We have postulated rules for describing nucleus structures based on the compound neutron (the compound of proton and electron) and the existence of dineutrons and tetraneutrons.

2. We have newly interpreted nuclear reactions of the isotope palladium-105 with dineutrons and tetraneutrons.

3. We have introduced the electron multiplication factor as the parameter describing the electron catalytical action of the Pd/D system.

4. The variability of excess heat per helium-4 was explained via several parallel nuclear reactions in the Pd/D system.

5. The system Pd/D₂/carbon-12 catalyst might be the laboratory standard for the Fleischmann-Pons experiment: the epitaxial growth of helium-4 on the inert ring of carbon-12 without side nuclear reactions.

6. These new channels predict the energetic yield of those fusion reactions that could be experimentally tested and differ from the energetic yield of the DD hot fusion.

7. McKubre quote [57] in 2016: “It is time to stop hiding information and start helping each other.”

8. Nature prepared for us some new safe routes of the helium-4 fusion reactions without dangerous byproducts.