Origin of Gravity and Reason for General Theory of Relativity Passing All the Tests

General Theory of Relativity as formulated by Einstein is incompatible with the rules of quantum mechanics and so far, not been unified with the other fundamental forces. New hypothesis provides solution to these  roblems by thermodynamics approach. Let’s consider an example of an open system such as Earth, which has excess energy (Potential energy) due to the disruption of intermolecular bonds on its surface and at different element interfaces that creates an inward pull, resulting in an absolute pressure that is higher than outside full vacuum universe. The difference needs to be balanced, so it creates an inward vacuum drag (gravity gradient) that enables all objects drag towards the Earth. In Einstein’s general theory of relativity, the above-mentioned phenomenon is regarded as the curvature of space-time. The concept of extra energy (due to molecular bonds) doesn’t work for a single molecule, which is why general relativity fails to hold true at atomic level. This hypothesis provides more fundamental explanations for several questions, including the source of gravity, deep understanding of gravitational potential energy, the hierarchy problem, and the factors influencing the variation of the universal gravitational constant. It elucidates the concept of the equivalence principle, the phenomenon of tidal bulge, and even the cataclysmic event of dinosaur mass extinction. Furthermore, it elucidates the rapid rotation of stars located on the outskirts of a galaxy and the ongoing acceleration of the universe’s expansion. It is important to understand that the underlying reason for intermolecular connections is the electromagnetic force, which supports the idea of combining gravity with other fundamental forces.

Introduction

Scientists have been endeavouring to unveil the source of gravity for almost four centuries. Newton initially proposed gravitational principles that are effective for velocities of smaller magnitudes. However, it becomes ineffective when the velocities of physical things approach the speed of light. Einstein’s general theory of relativity astounded the scientific community with its introduction of a peculiar notion of space-time that surpasses the constraints of Newton’s law of gravitation. According to general relativity, objects in free fall do not encounter any external force, which implies that gravity is not considered a force. In this context, the gravitational interaction between objects is incorporated into the curvature of space-time caused by massive objects, that pushes all objects to move toward the slope depicted in Fig. 1. This is an analogy to the Young-Laplace surface theory, which states that when a force is applied to a flat surface, it induces curvature and tension on the surface. That is the reason it has accurately predicted the equivalence principle, redshift, advancement of mercury’s perihelion, bending of light, frame dragging, and time delay. Nevertheless, it does not explain the behaviour of gravity at atomic scale or the integration of gravity with other fundamental forces. To account for the rapid spinning of stars on the outskirts of galaxies and the accelerating expansion of the universe, the notions of dark matter and dark energy were introduced as part of the general theory of relativity. The newly proposed hypothesis surpasses the constraints of general relativity and explains these tests in classical manner that are fundamentally conceivable. According to Dr. Neil deGrasse Tyson, a science communicator, to develop a fundamental theory of gravity, it must successfully pass all the tests that general relativity has passed and also be able to foresee new types of tests that are fundamentally conceivable. The new hypothesis incorporates the notion of surplus energy that an object possesses as a result of ruptured intermolecular bonds on surface and at different element interfaces [1]. On Earth, the presence of unsaturated molecules on the surface and at different interfaces are pulled inside, resulting in the creation of absolute internal pressure (don’t confuse it with internal pressure generation due to fusion/fission reactions). The pressure, in multiplication to the cross-sectional area of the Earth, results in a force that needs to be counterbalanced. A fraction of this force is employed in continuously attracting air molecules which generates an air density gradient, resulting in the formation of an atmosphere. The variation in air pressure directly affects the value of gravity [2]–[5]. Remaining fraction of the force is utilized in pulling objects towards the Earth that is known as gravity Fig. 2. Gravity can be understood as a reactive force that acts to counterbalance the force resulted from an excess of energy (gravitational potential energy). In day-to-day activity, it is observed that any object pulled due to gravity creates weight which is again counter balanced by a force generated from pressure (p) and cross-sectional area (A). (i.e., force beneath our feet or any object rest on surface) Therefore, it is inferred that the equation mg = ma = pA represents a more accurate equivalence principle. Also, potential energy is an object’s property in the form of excess energy which extends as a gravity gradient or gravitational field or electromagnetic wave gradient and not a system property.

Fig. 1. Visualizing Einstein’s space-time concept by thermodynamics. Two bubbles floating on the liquid surface (imaginary flat space-time). Remained absolute internal pressure (P = Pi – Pa) of bigger bubble causes concave surface inside the bubble that creates infinite convex surface outside the bubble. The outside convex surface causes small bubble to dragged towards the slop created by the big bubble. It is similar to space-time curvature described in general theory of relativity.

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of cause of gravity. The absolute internal pressure ($Pi$) was generated because of the excess energy (gravitational potential energy) (SE/2) which is partially balanced by the outside atmospheric pressure (Pa). The remaining internal pressure × hemisphere cross-sectional area of Earth (A/2) results in a gravitational force (F).

In Newton’s and Einstein’s equations, G is defined as a universal gravitational constant. Experiments show the value of G changes which shows gravity is variable. Note that, validation of significant variation in earth’s gravity requires a very long time that may extend up to dinosaur mass extinctions ear, etc. G can be expressed as the excess energy per kilogram mass. Currently, the earth is highly balanced, so, the variation is not significant. Minor variation in the value of G is due to changes in Earth’s excess energy that is making and breaking of intermolecular bonds.

Let’s understand the concept of gravitational potential energy (GPE) and kinetic energy (KE) as per the new hypothesis. GPE is an earth’s excess energy which is highest on the surface and zero at infinite distance. KE is directly proportional to GPE So, it is also zero at infinite distance. when the object comes under the influence of the earth’s GPE, its portion of GPE converts to KE (Fig. 3). Here, the object experiences stress which causes it to oblong in the direction of the GPE gradient that enables inward motion.

Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of gravitational potential energy (GPE) and kinetic energy (KE). GPE is highest on the surface and zero at infinite distance. KE is directly proportional to GPE So, it is zero at infinite distance. When object comes under the influence of the earth’s GPE, its portion converts to KE.

Method

Let us contemplate a kilogram of mass situated at an indefinite distance, (it possesses its own gravitational potential energy only) that is subjected to the gravity field exerted by the Earth. Thus, it descends towards the Earth. In this scenario, electromagnetic wave gradient facilitates interaction between the Earth and the object, similar to the way electrons are shared between two atoms. These waves facilitate the transmission of earth’s surplus energy (gravitational potential energy) to the object. Here, object experiences stress which causes it to oblong in the direction of gravity gradient that enables inward motion. Here, the portion of the earth’s surplus energy (gravitational potential energy) converts into the object’s kinetic energy, which is equivalent to half of the mass multiplied by the square of the velocity and vice versa. Here, it is important to acknowledge that the mass (inertia) functions as a multiplier which is why all objects fall with same acceleration.

Total Excess Energy (Gravitational potential energy) possessed by the Earth

(1) $$\begin{array}{r}SE=\frac{M{V}^2}{2}=\frac{5.98\text{E}+24\times {11178}^2}{2}=3.376\text{E}+32\text{N}\text{m}\end{array}$$

Here, $SE$ = Excess energy (Gravitational potential energy) N m

$M$ = Mass of Earth, (a multiplying factor) kg

$r$ = Radius of earth = 6371000 m

$v$ = Reverse of escape velocity at earth’s surface that is 11178 m s−1

Excess energy utilized by the Earth hemisphere on a one-kilogram object for dragging it from infinite distance to the Earth’s surface is equal to (and not at earth’s center)

$$\begin{array}{r}SE=\frac{1\times {11178}^2}{2}=6.25E+7Nm\end{array}$$

In Newton’s equation $U=\frac{-GMm}{r}$, (−) sign shall be interpreted as the energy subtracted from Earth’s total gravitational potential energy.

Now, let’s introduce surface tension concept (for ease of calculation) to determine the decrease in absolute pressure of Earth due to energy transferred to the object in form of kinetic energy. Surface tension $(\gamma )$ of Earth = surface excess energy of hemisphere/surface area of hemisphere.

(2) $$\begin{array}{r}\gamma =\frac{SE}{A}=\frac{6.25E+7}{2\pi \times {6371000}^2}=2.45E-7Nm-1\end{array}$$

where $A=2\pi r^2$, earth hemisphere surface area.

Absolute internal pressure can be calculated using thermodynamic approach. Here, for Earth, the interfacial energy equation can be written as $Ei=4\pi r^2\gamma$ In a thermodynamic sense, work has been done to give it a spherical shape and maintain it that way. From the definition of work, $dW=pdv$. Based on the conservation of the energy term, the work done should be equal to the interfacial energy, therefore $dW=dEi$. Taking surface tension as constant, $dEi=8\pi r\gamma dr$. Also, volume element in spherical coordinates is $dV=4\pi r^{2}dr$ [6].

Now, work done, $dW=pdv$. Here, p is absolute internal pressure and $dv$ is change in volume of Earth.

(3) $$\begin{array}{r}p=\frac{dW}{dv}=\frac{\text{dEi}}{dv}=\frac{8\pi \text{r}\gamma \text{dr}}{4\pi {\text{r}}^2\text{dr}}=\frac{2\gamma }{r}\end{array}$$

The above definition can be used to determine the reduction in earth’s absolute pressure to drag 1 kg object from the infinite distance.

$$\begin{array}{r}p=\frac{2\gamma }{r}=\frac{2\times 2.45E-7}{6371000}=7.69E-14Nm-2\end{array}$$

Multiply it with Earth’s projected area,

Therefore, the inward force or vacuum drag $(F)$ on the object is equal to

$$\begin{array}{r}F=Absolutepressure\times Earth\text{'}sprojectedarea\end{array}$$

(4) $$\begin{array}{r}F=\pi r^{2}p=\pi \times {6371000}^2\times 7.69E-14=9.8106Norkg{m}^{-1}{s}^{-2}\end{array}$$

This is the force on one kilogram object when it is at the earth’s surface.

Earth uses huge amount of excess energy to keep an object such as the moon in orbit. Here, the Earth and Moon use their orbital energy and intermolecular bond energy to maintain equilibrium. They both bulge because they weaken each other’s intermolecular bonds. The shift in shape from spherical to oblong causes an increase in volume, indicating that they have done work on each other.

Now, calculate the Earth’s vacuum drag on the Moon which is at a r₀ distance from Earth. Here, vacuum drag is inversely proportional to the square of radial distance. That means,

(5) $$\begin{array}{r}\pi {\text{r }}^2\text{p}=\pi {{\text{r}}_o}^2{\text{p}}_0\end{array}$$

where, $p_0$ = vacuum drag at Moon, N/m²

$r_0$ = Distance of moon to Earth = 384000000 m

$p$ = vacuum drag on Earth’s surface, N/m²

$$\begin{array}{r}{p}_0=\frac{p{r}^2}{r_o^2}=\frac{7.69E-14\times {6371000}^2}{{384000000}^2}=2.12E-17Nm-2\end{array}$$

Measuring this $p_0$ value directly is a challenge because it represents the effectiveness of vacuum drag in space due to gravity gradient.

Now, find the vacuum drag force towards the Earth at radius $r_0$, where, the projected area of Earth is the area perpendicular to the connecting Earth centre and the object. (Other influencing planets are not considered in this example).

$$\begin{array}{r}F=\pi r^2{p}_o=\pi \times {6371000}^2\times 2.12E-17=0.027Norkgm-1s-2\end{array}$$

Now, find the energy $(S{E}_{\text{o}})$ utilized by the Earth to keep the moon in orbit is equal to $S{E}_o=F\times M\times r_0=0.027\times 7.35E+22\times 384400000=7.28E+28Nmorkgs-2$ that by reducing Earth’s gravity and staying in the least energy state. If the Moon manages to escape by external energy source, Earth will have higher excess energy and have higher gravity.

Bending of Light by Sun’s Drag

Newton’s rule of gravity states that the acceleration of an object falling under Earth’s gravity is not affected by its mass. In other words, all things, regardless of their mass, will accelerate equally towards the Earth. Thus, it was presumed that the light would adhere to the same principle. It is determined that when light from a faraway star passing near the sun, will be pulled towards the sun, causing its path to curve. Einstein computed a deflection angle of 1.75 arcsecond for a light beam brushing the sun using the general theory of relativity, in contrast to the 0.87 arcsecond predicted by Newton’s equations of gravity. This prediction has been empirically verified. It is believed that the reason for the double deflection phenomenon is the prolonged duration it takes for light to traverse a curved gravitational field. Nevertheless, this argument fails to offer a basic explanation. The new hypothesis utilizes the concept of escape energy, which is the amount of energy needed for an object composed of molecules (mass) to accelerate. In contrast, light, which does not consist of molecules (massless), travels as a wave at a constant speed. An object that escapes from the surface of the sun has the least amount of extra energy (its own gravitational potential energy) since it is against the Sun’s strongest gravitational potential on the surface. As it escapes, it regains all of its excess energy (its own gravitational potential energy). Light does not have its own gravitational potential energy (it has only inherent photon energy), therefore, it is losing its energy by red shifting. Let’s examine the Schwarzschild radius, which is the minimum distance from the centre of a black hole at which light can escape. Consider Schwarzschild’s equation

(6) $$\begin{array}{r}{C}^2=2grm2s-2\end{array}$$

The given equation represents the escape velocity of light as C, measured in meters per second (m/s). and $m{C}^2$ represents the required energy.

Now, look at Schwarzschild’s radius for an object made up of molecules that require energy equivalent to ${\displaystyle \frac{{\text{mC}}^2}{2}}$. Therefore, we can deduce that light requires twice as much energy. That implies it experiences twice the amount of energy loss to escape compared to any object composed of molecules. To determine the deflection tangent angle of light that escapes tangentially from the sun’s surface, one can calculate the ratio between the needed escape energy and the actual energy.

For light that escapes tangentially from the Sun’s surface, the deflection tangent angle of light can be calculated by the ratio of the required escape energy to the actual energy.

Therefore, the ratio (Ø) is the energy required to escape to the total energy of the light.

(7) $$\begin{array}{r}RatioØ=\frac{mV{r}^2}{m{C}^2}=\frac{{617029}^2}{{299792458}^2}=4.236E-6\end{array}$$

where, V_r = Sun escape velocity = 6617029 m/s,

C = Speed of light = 299792458 m/s,

Convert to the second unit

$$\begin{array}{r}\delta =4.236E-6\times 3600=0.01525second\end{array}$$

Convert to arc second

$$\begin{array}{r}\delta =\frac{0.01525\times 180}{\pi }=0.8738arcsecond\end{array}$$

arc second This is the half angle for the light that has just left the Sun’s limb. Similar deflection angle on the opposite side can be measured that depends on the distance of the rear star. The total deflection caused by light when it passes just the tangent line of the sun is double.

$$\begin{array}{r}\delta total=2\times 0.8738=1.7475arcsecond\end{array}$$

For an object escaping from the Sun’s surface in parabola trajectory (e = 1), the deflection tangent angle can be calculated by doing ratio of escape energy to the actual total energy.

The energy required to escape/actual energy possessed by an object.

Here, object’s gravitational potential energy, mgr is remained after losing some energy to attract Earth and vice versa. Tacking off the mass m from the numerator and denominator.

(8) $$\begin{array}{r}Ratio\mathrm{\Theta }=\frac{1/2mV{r}^2}{1/2m{a}^2+mgr}=\frac{1/2\times {6170292}^2}{1/2\times {6170292}^2+273.59\times 695800000}=0.5\end{array}$$

Convert to arc deg

$$\begin{array}{r}\delta =\frac{0.50000\times 180}{\pi }=28.648\text{arc deg}\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{r}\delta =\pi \times 28.648={90}^{\circ }\end{array}$$

This is a half angle for an object passing the Sun at radius r, and the deflection angle on the opposite side can be measured. Therefore, the total deflection made by an object in a parabola trajectory will be double.

$$\begin{array}{r}\delta total=2\times 90={180}^{\circ }\end{array}$$

Gravitational Redshift of Light

According to the equivalence principle, gravity affects all physical entities, including light. Experimental evidence has confirmed that light moving toward a gravitating object undergoes a blue shift, whereas light going away from it experiences a redshift. This indicates that the former gets energy, while the latter loses energy. (It is similar to a physical object which gains energy while moving towards a gravitating body). We refer to this phenomenon as the gravitational frequency shift. This can be explained by a novel theory that Earth’s surplus energy transfers in objects or waves. Since light does not consist of molecules (massless), it does not possess any additional energy (except inherent photon energy). Consequently, it either loses or acquires twice the amount of energy by red shifting or blue shifting, respectively.

The photon’s initial energy, 14400 eV, is comparable to the energy of gamma rays used in the Pound-Rebka experiment in 1959. The sun’s gravitational pull causes it to lose energy upon arrival at Earth. Let, calculate the energy loss by photon travelling from Sun to Earth.

Distance traveled by photon,

$$\begin{array}{r}d=T\times C=499\times 299792458=1.496E+11m\end{array}$$

where, d = Dist. travelled by photon, in m,

C = Speed of Light, 299792458 m/sec

T = Travel Time by Photon, 499 sec

Now, the Excess energy of the Sun (gravitational potential energy per kg) can be calculated using the same procedure as that used for the Earth’s Excess energy.

So, it has $SE=1.9042E+11Nm$ amount of excess energy per kg.

Here, surface tension introduced to determine the absolute internal pressure. Note that, there is no role of surface tension except to find a reduction in absolute internal pressure.

Now, the surface tension (γ) of the Sun is equal to the excess energy of the Sun’s hemisphere/area of the Sun’s hemisphere area.

$$\begin{array}{r}\gamma =\frac{SE}{A}=\frac{1.9042\text{E}+11}{2\pi \times {696000000}^2}=6.26\text{E}-08Nm-1\end{array}$$

where, r = Radius of Sun, 696000000 m

A = Half Surface area of Sun m2

$$\begin{array}{r}p=\frac{2\gamma }{r}=\frac{2\times 6.26\text{E}-08}{696000000}=1.798\text{E}-16Nm-2\end{array}$$

Therefore, the Normal Force (F) per kg on the Sun’s surface is equal to

$$\begin{array}{r}\text{F}=\text{Absolute pressure }\times \text{sun's}\text{projected area }\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{r}F=\pi r^{2}p=\pi \times {696000000}^2\times 1.798\text{E}-16=273.587Norkg{m}^{-1}{s}^{-2}\end{array}$$

Now, calculate inward vacuum drag on Earth at r₀ distance from the Sun.

Here, vacuum drag is inversely proportional to radial distance.

Now, calculate the Sun’s vacuum drag on the Earth which is at r₀ distance from Sun. Here, Inward vacuum drag is inversely proportional to the square of radial distance. That means,

$$\begin{array}{r}\pi {\text{r}}^2\text{p}=\pi {{\text{r}}_o}^2{\text{p}}_0\end{array}$$

where, $p_0$ = vacuum drag at Earth, N/m²

$r_0$ = Distance of Earth to Sun = 1.496 E+11 m

$p$ = vacuum drag on Sun’s surface, N/m²

$$\begin{array}{r}{p}_0=\frac{p{r}^2}{r_o^2}=\frac{1.798E-16\times {696000000}^2}{{(1.496E+11)}^2}=3.892E-21Nm-2\end{array}$$

This is the vacuum drag at the Earth’s surface due to the Sun.

Find gravity force towards the sun at radius 1.496 E+11 m, (Earth to Sun distance).

Here, the sun radius (r) is considered in the equation. The normal cross-sectional area of the sun is the only facing area.

$$\begin{array}{r}F=\pi r^2{p}_o=\pi \times {696000000}^2\times 3.892\text{E}-21=0.005922Norkgm-1s-2\end{array}$$

This is equal to the per kg vacuum drag of the Sun on Earth.

Now, the equation of equivalent mass of the photon is,

(9) $$\begin{array}{r}mp=\frac{Ep}{C^2}=\frac{14400}{{299792458}^2}=1.6026E-13kg\end{array}$$

where, E_p = Photon Energy, 14400 eV

m_p = 1.6026 E−13 kg

Energy gain or loss by Photon,

ΔE_p = mass of photon × (cross s/c area of Sun × inward vacuum drag at Earth surface × distance travelled by a photon from centre) − (cross s/c area of Sun × inward vacuum drag at Sun surface × distance travelled by a photon from centre).

(10) $$\begin{array}{r}\mathrm{\Delta }Ep=mp(\pi r^2{p}_o\times r_o-\pi r^{2}p\times r)\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{rl}\mathrm{\Delta }Ep& =1.6026E-13\times ((\pi \times {696000000}^2\times 3.892E-21\times 1.496E+11)\\ & -(\pi \times {696000000}^2\times 1.798E-16\times 696000000))\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{r}\mathrm{\Delta }Ep=-3.0366945E-02eV\end{array}$$

This is the energy lost by a single photon.

The same procedure can be applied to the pound-Rebka experiment where the gamma photon (14400 eV) energy gain equal to +3.55 E−11 eV can be calculated for a 22.56 m distance.

Precession of the Mercury’s Perihelion by Asteroid Cumulative Striking Force

Newton’s equations forecast a perihelion precession of 5557 arcseconds per century for planet Mercury, while the observed precession was 5600 arcseconds per century. The disparity amounted to 43 arcseconds per century. Le Verriere, a French scientist, provided a solution by predicting the existence of a planet called Vulcan, which would circle between Mercury and the Sun. Nevertheless, it remains unobserved. Einstein resolved the difficulty by proposing the concept of space-time curvature caused by the sun, as described in the theory of general relativity. Nevertheless, the anticipated magnitudes of Venus, Earth, and other planets deviate significantly from actual observations. The theory presented below uses fundamental physics principles to explain the disparity in perihelion advancement observed in all circling entities. Previous predictions of Mercury’s precession advancement did not account for the combined impact force of the asteroids. The Sun's gravitational field pulls asteroids toward it in a radial direction. Therefore, Mercury encounters a significantly higher frequency of asteroid impacts in comparison to the other outer planets. So, its orbit occasionally gets disturbed. Also, Mercury encounters more dense space at perihelion compared to aphelion which gradually reduces its orbital speed. It tries to achieve a circular orbit again by being in the least energy state and more stable state. It is worth mentioning that Venus and Earth undergo less precession than Mercury, Mars, and the Moon. This is due to the fact that both Venus and Earth have nearly circular orbits, dense atmospheres, and soft surfaces resulting from volcanic activity (on Venus), as well as the presence of water (on Earth). These factors allow them to absorb the force of asteroid impacts. In contrast, Mercury, Mars, and the Moon have almost no atmosphere and hard surfaces, making them more susceptible to hard impact.

Gravitational Tidal Bulge

According to the new hypothesis, the gravitational tidal bulge is considered a macroscopic characteristic. This phenomenon can be described as the mutual interaction between the Earth and the Moon caused by gravity gradient, which is counteracted by their centrifugal force resulting from their orbital velocities and mass, leading to a stretching effect. The extent of stretching is determined by the cross-section area, mass, and the distance between objects. This is why the Earth’s bulge is greater than that of the Moon. Also, the decrease in Earth’s cross-sectional area due to inertia results in a loss of gravity at the near and far sides. The rise in ocean water levels is primarily caused by an increase in water volume resulting from a fall in density that also occurs in the solid Earth and atmosphere due to the vacuum drag (gravity gradient). It should be noted that the strength of Earth’s gravity at the poles is greater than at the equator. This is due to the fact that the cross-sectional area of the Earth perpendicular to the poles is larger than in the direction of the bulge.

The Absence of Dark Energy

Based on observations, the cosmos is persistently expanding at an accelerated rate, despite the gravitational force exerting an inward pull. To address this issue, astrophysicists have suggested the existence of an agent or ether that counteracts the force of gravity. This phenomenon is commonly known among scientists as dark energy. The prevailing explanation of dark energy is the “cosmological constant,” which is an intrinsic characteristic of space and exhibits “negative pressure”. The cosmological constant problem, also known as the vacuum catastrophe, refers to the discrepancy between the measured values of the energy density of empty space and the energy associated with the lowest possible energy state according to quantum field theory. The Planck energy cut-off and various other considerations, the difference is as large as 120 orders of magnitude. Physicists have referred to this as “the largest disparity between theory and experiment in all of science” and “the most inaccurate theoretical prediction in the history of physics”. Scientists have determined that the cumulative amount of dark energy in the universe must account for almost 70% of its total substance, based on the measured pace of expansion. Nevertheless, the identity of the object remains unknown. The new theory posits that the universe has an inherent inclination towards achieving a condition of homogeneity. The homogeneity decreases as older electromagnetic waves propagate across unoccupied space compared to new high-energy waves. This generates an energy gradient that needs to be decreased. This is the reason why it attracts all the matter in every direction. Conversely, gravity decreases the homogeneity of the cosmos which further increases the energy gradient. Additionally, galaxies are losing most of their gravitational effects in holding surrounding masses.

The Absence of Dark Matter

Scientists have postulated the existence of dark matter in the cosmos in order to account for the rapid spin of stars located on the outskirts of a galaxy. According to the experiments, the qualities of this matter do not show any correlation with the properties of visible matter. It lacks the ability to absorb or emit light. It is imperceptible and has not been directly observed. There are multiple detectors designed to monitor the presence of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs). The hypothesis of dark matter can be refuted by seeing the galaxy’s rotation as a cohesive entity, akin to a cyclone. The initial angular momentum, which was present during galaxy formation, continues to exert its influence by imparting extra velocity to the galaxy as a whole. In addition, the convergence of electromagnetic waves towards the centre enhances the attraction. Diffused galaxies lack both the initial angular momentum and the cohesive behaviour as a single entity.

Conclusion

Figs. 4 and 5 depict an association between the gravitational anomaly and the topography of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, ocean basins, and volcanic locations. It can be inferred that gravity is influenced by the specific characteristics of the local surface, including its form, roughness, exposed surface elements, volcanic activity, local and global air pressure, temperature, composition, purity, and surface elevation [7]–[9]. For instance, the regions within the ring of fire in the Pacific Ocean experience increased gravitational force due to their elevated topography, reduced atmospheric density at higher altitudes, greater surface area exposure resulting from the convex shape of mountains, and exposure to heavy elements caused by volcanic eruptions. Conversely, Hudson Bay and the Indian Ocean exhibit low gravitational forces as a result of their concave ocean surfaces, the presence of high air pressure in opposition, the absence of volcanic activity, and the accumulation of light sediments transported by rivers. Venus possesses a dense atmosphere primarily due to volcanic activity that caused heavy elements exposer on surface followed by decreased opposing internal pressure due to increased mass and temperature homogeneity across radial direction inside the planet and its slow rotational speed that led to the greenhouse effect. These factors contribute to the accumulation of high amount of excess energy, resulting in a significant increase in absolute gravity. It is counteracted by the presence of a dense atmosphere. This is the reason why Earth and Venus have almost identical gravitational forces, despite having significantly different atmospheric conditions. Furthermore, Mars possessed a significantly denser atmosphere in comparison to its present-day less dense atmosphere because of the presence of volcanoes and elevated temperatures on its surface [10]–[15]. Pioneer and flyby anomalies can be explained as spacecrafts gradual decrease in temperature and surrounding pressure increases their own gravity that by causing deceleration and acceleration respectively.

Fig. 4. Gravity anomaly between the observed gravity and predicted from a model (Source: NASA Photo Journal).

Fig. 5. Encyclopedia Britannica [Internet].  https://www.britannica.com/science/volcano [16].

Now, let us demonstrate the notion of absolute gravity versus corrected gravity by considering the example of the Earth-Moon and Jupiter-Io pair as their distances are nearly the same. Here, Earth has reduced the Moon’s gravity by 0.027 N per kg. Assuming the moon manages to escape, so, its gravity will return to 1.647N (1.62 + 0.027). Similarly, Jupiter’s gravitational pull has diminished Io’s gravity by 0.68 N per kg, Assuming Io manages to escape, Io’s absolute gravity will return to 2.48N (1.8 + 0.68), Here, Io’s absolute gravity is much higher than the moon due to the presence of extremely active volcanoes that exposing heavy elements on the surface. It is important to observe that planets or moons with history of volcanic activity exhibit more gravitational force Table I. Due to the interdependence of numerous factors, determining the surface excess energy of celestial bodies such as planets is a challenging task.

Table I. Gravity vs. Volcanic Activity (Prepared Based on Data Available on Internet)

Planets/Moons	Radius m	Density g/cm3	Gravity N	Volcanic activity
Earth	6371	5.51	9.81	Volcanic activity
Mercury	2440	5.43	3.70	Volcanic activity
Venus	6052	5.24	8.87	Volcanic activity
Mars	3390	3.93	3.70	Volcanic activity
Io	1822	3.53	1.80	Volcanic activity
Moon	1737	3.35	1.63	Volcanic activity
Europa	1561	3.01	1.32	Volcanic activity
HaumeaR	620	2.55	0.44	Volcanic activity
ErisR	1163	2.52	0.66	Volcanic activity
Ceres	482	2.17	0.29	Volcanic activity
Triton	1353	2.06	0.78	Volcanic activity
PlutoR	1184	2.03	0.61	Volcanic activity
Ganymede	2634	1.94	1.43	Volcanic activity
Titan	2576	1.88	1.35	Volcanic activity
Charon	604	1.65	0.28	No volcanic activity
Neptune	24622	1.64	11.15	No volcanic activity
Jupiter	69911	1.33	24.79	No volcanic activity
Uranus	25362	1.27	8.87	No volcanic activity
Rhea	764	1.24	0.26	No volcanic activity
Iapetus	735	1.09	0.22	No volcanic activity
Tethys	531	0.98	0.15	No volcanic activity
Saturn	58232	0.69	10.45	No volcanic activity

The hypothesis of gravity provides explanations for various phenomena, such as the spherical shape of celestial objects and their almost circular orbits. These phenomena can be attributed to the objects’ inclination towards a state of minimal energy to become more stable. The dinosaur mass extinction happened due to a sudden increase in surface gravity during the dinosaur era. An asteroid stuck on Earth led to significant volcanic eruptions, gradually revealing dense materials resulted in decreased opposing internal pressure due to increased mass and temperature homogeneity across radial direction inside the planet [17]–[20]. This had prevented any large and tall life from supporting their mass. Small life with low centre of gravity, adapted to shallow water successfully managed the increased hydrostatic pressure were survived [21]–[23]. Here, the kinetic energy of an asteroid was utilized to change the Earth’s surface topography, and internal mass distribution resulting in a rise in gravity. It is observed that astronauts can achieve greater vertical jumps on the Moon due to their muscles being adapted to function in the higher gravitational force of Earth [24], [25].

Einstein’s general relativity does not account for the addition or subtraction of gravity in an object that is traveling away or closer. Imagine that the Moon is orbiting much closer to Earth than its current position. Therefore, the Moon and the Earth will reduce their excess energy (gravitational potential energy). Here, the Earth maintains its mass while experiencing a decrease in gravitational force. Thus, it can be inferred that gravity is independent of mass. Measurement units like mass, length, time, etc. are merely numbers and they can’t contribute in any natural phenomenon.

Gravity operates within a closed system because of its property of summation or abstraction, similar to how electromagnetic waves function. The clock time on Earth’s surface is slower than the clock time on a satellite due to the clock’s lower excess energy on Earth compared to above in the satellite. The hypothesis of dark matter can be disproven by observing the rotation of a galaxy, which behaves as a cohesive unit, resembling a cyclone [26]. The initial angular momentum of galaxy formation continues to exert its influence, imparting additional velocity to the outermost stars. As a result, these stars have created a cohesive circular disk that prevents their escape. The concept of dark energy can be refuted by introducing the notion of vacuum drag in deep space through cosmic voids, as it contradicts the universe’s tendency to achieve the least energy state by uniform distribution. A gravitational wave is not a result of deformity in the fabric of spacetime caused by orbiting of two objects as a binary system. Both objects decrease their extra energy (gravitational potential energy) by approaching each other and increasing their orbital speed. Electric force between two charge particles can be derived similar excess energy/ energy deficit concept.

Experiments can be conducted to disprove the direct proportionality between gravity and an object’s mass. One large high purity lead ball can be fixed and meticulously polished to a reflective surface. Allow the little ball to approach nearer. Here, the surplus energy will be minimal due to the sleek surface, resulting in reduced gravity relative to the rough surface. Here, time shall be considered as one of the crucial parameters as it defines acceleration. Many more experiments can be conducted by altering object’s surface topography, keeping it in different pressure or temperature conditions etc.

In siphon pipe experiment, siphon is formed by generating a vacuum against the force of gravity to elevate the water level. However, gravity acts to reduce it enough to overcome the weight of liquid and the frictional losses in the pipe, thereby initiating the flow [27]–[29]. Thus, it can be inferred that neither the atmosphere nor molecule cohesion were responsible for the siphon effect. The continuous flow of liquid is created by the vacuum drag induced by gravity on the opposite side, which propagates constantly at each cross-section of the pipe.

The introduction states that the general theory of relativity offers a conceptual explanation of gravity by using an imaginary geometric representation of space-time. Consequently, it has undergone several observational and experimental tests related to light properties that have helped to develop many useful technologies. However, the underlying principles of gravity continue to elude our understanding. Hence, the basic scientific concept is a need of contemporary science. It is determined that gravity is a thermodynamic attribute of an object rather than a fundamental force.